Personal Style in Art Personal Style in Art Definition

Visual appearance of a artistic piece of work, shared with other works of the same movement or school

In the visual arts, style is a "...distinctive mode which permits the group of works into related categories"^[ane] or "...any distinctive, and therefore recognizable, way in which an act is performed or an artifact made or ought to be performed and made".^[ii] It refers to the visual appearance of a work of art that relates it to other works by the same artist or one from the same period, grooming, location, "school", art motion or archaeological culture: "The notion of style has long been the art historian'south principal fashion of classifying works of art. By style he selects and shapes the history of art".^[three]

Style is often divided into the general style of a period, country or cultural group, group of artists or art movement, and the individual style of the artist within that group style. Divisions within both types of styles are often made, such as between "early", "center" or "late".^[4] In some artists, such as Picasso for example, these divisions may be marked and easy to see; in others, they are more subtle. Style is seen as unremarkably dynamic, in most periods always changing past a gradual process, though the speed of this varies greatly, from the very slow development in mode typical of prehistoric art or Aboriginal Egyptian art to the rapid changes in Modern art styles. Style oft develops in a series of jumps, with relatively sudden changes followed by periods of slower development.

Later on dominating academic discussion in fine art history in the 19th and early 20th centuries, so-chosen "way art history" has come up under increasing attack in recent decades, and many art historians now prefer to avoid stylistic classifications where they can.^[5]

Overview [edit]

Any piece of art is in theory capable of being analysed in terms of style; neither periods nor artists tin avoid having a mode, except by consummate incompetence,^[half-dozen] and conversely natural objects or sights cannot be said to have a way, as style only results from choices made by a maker.^[7] Whether the artist makes a conscious pick of style, or can identify his own style, hardly matters. Artists in recent adult societies tend to be highly conscious of their ain way, arguably over-conscious, whereas for earlier artists stylistic choices were probably "largely unselfconscious".^[viii]

Well-nigh stylistic periods are identified and divers after by art historians, but artists may cull to define and proper name their own style. The names of most older styles are the invention of art historians and would non have been understood past the practitioners of those styles. Some originated as terms of derision, including Gothic, Baroque, and Rococo.^[nine] Cubism on the other hand was a witting identification made by a few artists; the word itself seems to have originated with critics rather than painters, but was rapidly accepted by the artists.

Western fine art, like that of some other cultures, most notably Chinese art, has a marked trend to revive at intervals "classic" styles from the by.^[10] In critical analysis of the visual arts, the style of a work of art is typically treated as distinct from its iconography, which covers the discipline and the content of the work, though for Jas Elsner this distinction is "not, of course, truthful in whatsoever actual example; but it has proved rhetorically extremely useful".^[eleven]

History of the concept [edit]

Classical fine art criticism and the relatively few medieval writings on aesthetics did not profoundly develop a concept of style in fine art, or analysis of information technology,^[12] and though Renaissance and Baroque writers on art are greatly concerned with what we would telephone call manner, they did not develop a coherent theory of it, at to the lowest degree outside compages:

Creative styles shift with cultural conditions; a cocky-axiomatic truth to any modern art historian, but an extraordinary idea in this flow [Early Renaissance and before]. Nor is information technology clear that whatsoever such thought was articulated in artifact... Pliny was attentive to changes in means of art-making, simply he presented such changes equally driven by technology and wealth. Vasari, too, attributes the strangeness and, in his view the deficiencies, of before fine art to lack of technological know-how and cultural sophistication.^[13]

Giorgio Vasari gear up out a hugely influential simply much-questioned account of the evolution of manner in Italian painting (mainly) from Giotto to his own Mannerist period. He stressed the evolution of a Florentine fashion based on disegno or line-based cartoon, rather than Venetian colour. With other Renaissance theorists similar Leon Battista Alberti he continued classical debates over the best residue in art between the realistic depiction of nature and idealization of it; this debate was to continue until the 19th century and the advent of Modernism.^[14]

The theorist of Neoclassicism, Johann Joachim Winckelmann, analysed the stylistic changes in Greek classical fine art in 1764, comparing them closely to the changes in Renaissance art, and "Georg Hegel codified the notion that each historical period will have a typical style", casting a very long shadow over the study of way.^[15] Hegel is often attributed with the invention of the High german discussion Zeitgeist, but he never actually used the give-and-take, although in Lectures on the Philosophy of History, he uses the phrase der Geist seiner Zeit (the spirit of his time), writing that "no man can surpass his ain time, for the spirit of his time is likewise his own spirit."^[16]

Constructing schemes of the period styles of historic art and architecture was a major concern of 19th century scholars in the new and initially by and large German-speaking field of art history, with of import writers on the broad theory of style including Carl Friedrich von Rumohr, Gottfried Semper, and Alois Riegl in his Stilfragen of 1893, with Heinrich Wölfflin and Paul Frankl continuing the contend in the 20th century.^[17] Paul Jacobsthal and Josef Strzygowski are among the art historians who followed Riegl in proposing thousand schemes tracing the transmission of elements of styles across smashing ranges in fourth dimension and space. This blazon of art history is also known every bit formalism, or the study of forms or shapes in fine art.^[18]

Semper, Wölfflin, and Frankl, and afterward Ackerman, had backgrounds in the history of architecture, and like many other terms for catamenia styles, "Romanesque" and "Gothic" were initially coined to describe architectural styles, where major changes betwixt styles can be clearer and more easy to define, not least because style in architecture is easier to replicate by following a fix of rules than way in figurative art such as painting. Terms originated to describe architectural periods were oftentimes afterwards applied to other areas of the visual arts, and so more widely still to music, literature and the general culture.^[19]

In compages stylistic change oft follows, and is made possible by, the discovery of new techniques or materials, from the Gothic rib vault to modern metal and reinforced physical construction. A major area of fence in both fine art history and archaeology has been the extent to which stylistic change in other fields like painting or pottery is likewise a response to new technical possibilities, or has its own impetus to develop (the kunstwollen of Riegl), or changes in response to social and economical factors affecting patronage and the conditions of the creative person, as current thinking tends to emphasize, using less rigid versions of Marxist fine art history.^[20]

Although manner was well-established as a central component of art historical analysis, seeing it every bit the over-riding factor in fine art history had fallen out of way by World War II, equally other ways of looking at art were developing,^[21] as well as a reaction confronting the emphasis on style; for Svetlana Alpers, "the normal invocation of fashion in art history is a depressing thing indeed".^[22] According to James Elkins "In the later 20th century criticisms of style were aimed at further reducing the Hegelian elements of the concept while retaining it in a form that could be more easily controlled".^[23] Meyer Schapiro, James Ackerman, Ernst Gombrich and George Kubler (The Shape of Fourth dimension: Remarks on the History of Things, 1962) have made notable contributions to the debate, which has likewise drawn on wider developments in critical theory.^[24] In 2010 Jas Elsner put it more than strongly: "For nigh the whole of the 20th century, manner art history has been the indisputable king of the field of study, but since the revolutions of the seventies and eighties the rex has been expressionless",^[25] though his article explores means in which "style art history" remains alive, and his annotate would hardly be applicable to archaeology.

The use of terms such as Counter-Maniera appears to be in decline, as impatience with such "style labels" grows amid art historians. In 2000 Marcia B. Hall, a leading art historian of 16th-century Italian painting and mentee of Sydney Joseph Freedberg (1914–1997), who invented the term, was criticised by a reviewer of her After Raphael: Painting in Central Italy in the Sixteenth Century for her "central flaw" in continuing to use this and other terms, despite an apologetic "Note on style labels" at the start of the volume and a promise to keep their use to a minimum.^[26]

A rare recent endeavor to create a theory to explicate the process driving changes in artistic style, rather than just theories of how to depict and categorize them, is by the behavioural psychologist Colin Martindale, who has proposed an evolutionary theory based on Darwinian principles.^[27] However this cannot exist said to have gained much support among art historians.

Individual style [edit]

"Signature style" redirects here. For the American company known equally Signature Styles 2009–2012, run across Signature Styles.

Traditional fine art history has also placed not bad emphasis on the individual way, sometimes chosen the signature style,^[28] of an artist: "the notion of personal style—that individuality can exist uniquely expressed not just in the way an artist draws, but also in the stylistic quirks of an writer's writing (for instance)— is perhaps an precept of Western notions of identity".^[29] The identification of individual styles is especially important in the attribution of works to artists, which is a dominant cistron in their valuation for the art market, above all for works in the Western tradition since the Renaissance. The identification of individual mode in works is "essentially assigned to a group of specialists in the field known as connoisseurs",^[thirty] a grouping who heart in the fine art trade and museums, often with tensions between them and the community of academic art historians.^[31]

The exercise of connoisseurship is largely a matter of subjective impressions that are hard to analyse, but also a matter of knowing details of technique and the "hand" of dissimilar artists. Giovanni Morelli (1816 – 1891) pioneered the systematic study of the scrutiny of diagnostic small details that revealed artists' scarcely conscious autograph and conventions for portraying, for example, ears or hands, in Western old primary paintings. His techniques were adopted past Bernard Berenson and others, and have been practical to sculpture and many other types of art, for example by Sir John Beazley to Attic vase painting.^[32] Personal techniques can be important in analysing individual style. Though artists' training was before Modernism essentially imitative, relying on taught technical methods, whether learnt as an apprentice in a workshop or later on as a student in an university, there was e'er room for personal variation. The idea of technical "secrets" closely guarded past the master who adult them, is a long-standing topos in fine art history from Vasari's probably mythical account of Jan van Eyck to the secretive habits of Georges Seurat.^[33]

However the idea of personal manner is certainly not express to the Western tradition. In Chinese art it is just every bit deeply held, but traditionally regarded every bit a factor in the appreciation of some types of art, to a higher place all calligraphy and literati painting, merely not others, such every bit Chinese porcelain;^[34] a distinction also often seen in the then-called decorative arts in the West. Chinese painting as well allowed for the expression of political and social views by the artist a good deal earlier than is commonly detected in the West.^[35] Calligraphy, also regarded as a fine art in the Islamic globe and East asia, brings a new surface area within the ambit of personal manner; the ideal of Western calligraphy tends to exist to suppress individual mode, while graphology, which relies upon it, regards itself as a scientific discipline.

The painter Edward Edwards said in his Anecdotes of Painters (1808): "Mr. Gainsborough'southward manner of penciling was and so peculiar to himself, that his piece of work needed no signature".^[36] Examples of strongly individual styles include: the Cubist art of Pablo Picasso, the Pop Fine art manner^[37] of Andy Warhol, Impressionist style of Vincent Van Gogh, Drip Painting by Jackson Pollock

Manner [edit]

"Manner" is a related term, often used for what is in event a sub-division of a style, possibly focused on detail points of manner or technique.^[38] While many elements of flow way can be reduced to feature forms or shapes, that can fairly exist represented in simple line-drawn diagrams, "fashion" is more than often used to hateful the overall style and atmosphere of a work, peculiarly circuitous works such equally paintings, that cannot so easily be field of study to precise analysis. It is a somewhat outdated term in academic fine art history, avoided because it is imprecise. When used it is often in the context of imitations of the private style of an creative person, and it is one of the bureaucracy of discreet or diplomatic terms used in the art merchandise for the relationship betwixt a work for sale and that of a well-known artist, with "Manner of Rembrandt" suggesting a distanced relationship between the fashion of the piece of work and Rembrandt'south own style. The "Caption of Cataloguing Practice" of the auctioneers Christie'due south' explains that "Mode of..." in their sale catalogues means "In our opinion a piece of work executed in the creative person'southward style only of a after date".^[39] Mannerism, derived from the Italian maniera ("manner") is a specific phase of the general Renaissance style, just "style" can be used very widely.

Style in archaeology [edit]

In archaeology, despite modern techniques like radiocarbon dating, period or cultural style remains a crucial tool in the identification and dating not only of works of art only all classes of archaeological artefact, including purely functional ones (ignoring the question of whether purely functional artefacts exist).^[40] The identification of individual styles of artists or artisans has also been proposed in some cases even for remote periods such equally the Ice Age art of the European Upper Paleolithic.^[41]

Equally in art history, formal assay of the morphology (shape) of individual artefacts is the starting point. This is used to construct typologies for different types of artefacts, and by the technique of seriation a relative dating based on style for a site or group of sites is achieved where scientific absolute dating techniques cannot be used, in particular where only rock, ceramic or metal artefacts or remains are available, which is often the case.^[42] Sherds of pottery are often very numerous in sites from many cultures and periods, and even small pieces may be confidently dated by their mode. In dissimilarity to recent trends in bookish fine art history, the succession of schools of archaeological theory in the last century, from civilisation-historical archæology to processual archeology and finally the rise of post-processual archaeology in recent decades has not significantly reduced the importance of the study of style in archæology, every bit a basis for classifying objects before further interpretation.^[43]

Stylization [edit]

Stylization and stylized (or stylisation and stylised in (non-Oxford) British English, respectively) take a more specific meaning, referring to visual depictions that utilise simplified ways of representing objects or scenes that exercise non attempt a full, precise and accurate representation of their visual appearance (mimesis or "realistic"), preferring an attractive or expressive overall depiction. More technically, it has been defined every bit "the decorative generalization of figures and objects by ways of various conventional techniques, including the simplification of line, class, and relationships of infinite and color",^[44] and observed that "[s]tylized art reduces visual perception to constructs of design in line, surface elaboration and flattened space".^[45]

Aboriginal, traditional, and modernistic fine art, every bit well as pop forms such as cartoons or animation very frequently use stylized representations, so for example The Simpsons utilise highly stylized depictions, as does traditional African art. The 2 Picasso paintings illustrated at the top of this folio show a movement to a more stylized representation of the human being figure inside the painter's mode,^[46] and the Uffington White Horse is an example of a highly stylized prehistoric depiction of a horse. Motifs in the decorative arts such as the palmette or arabesque are often highly stylized versions of the parts of plants.

Even in art that is in general attempting mimesis or "realism", a degree of stylization is very often found in details, and especially figures or other features at a small scale, such as people or trees etc. in the distant background even of a large work. But this is not stylization intended to be noticed by the viewer, except on close examination.^[47] Drawings, modelli, and other sketches non intended as finished works for sale will besides very often stylize.

"Stylized" may mean the adoption of any style in whatever context, and in American English language is often used for the typographic style of names, as in "AT&T is also stylized as ATT and at&t": this is a specific usage that seems to have escaped dictionaries, although information technology is a small extension of existing other senses of the word.^{[ citation needed ]}

Calculator identification [edit]

In a 2012 experiment at Lawrence Technological University in Michigan, a computer analysed approximately 1,000 paintings from 34 well-known artists using a specially developed algorithm and placed them in like style categories to human fine art historians.^[48] The analysis involved the sampling of more than iv,000 visual features per work of art.^{[48] [49]}

See too [edit]

• Artistic rendering
• Composition (visual arts)
• Mise en scène

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Fernie, Eric. Art History and its Methods: A critical album. London: Phaidon, 1995, p. 361. ISBN 978-0-7148-2991-3
2. ^ Gombrich, 150
3. ^ George Kubler summarizing the view of Meyer Schapiro (with whom he disagrees), quoted past Alpers in Lang, 138
4. ^ Elkins, south. 1
5. ^ Elkins, s. 2; Kubler in Lang, 163–164; Alpers in Lang, 137–138; 161
6. ^ George Kubler goes further "No human being acts escape style", Kubler in Lang, 167; II, iii in his list; Elkins, s. ii
7. ^ Lang, 177–178
8. ^ Elsner, 106–107, 107 quoted
9. ^ Gombrich, 131; Award & Fleming, 13–fourteen; Elkins, s. 2
10. ^ Honour & Fleming, 13
11. ^ Elsner, 107–108, 108 quoted
12. ^ classical authors did go out a considerable and subtle body of analysis of style in literature, especially rhetoric; see Gombrich, 130–131
13. ^ Nagel and Wood, 92
14. ^ Run into Blunt throughout, with in detail pp. 14–22 on Alberti, 28–34 on Leonardo, 61–64 on Michelangelo, 89–95 and 98–100 on Vasari
15. ^ Elkins, due south. 2; Preziosi, 115–117; Gombrich, 136
16. ^ Glenn Alexander Magee (2011), "Zeitgeist", The Hegel Dictionary, Continuum International Publishing Group, p. 262, ISBN9781847065919
17. ^ Elkins, s. 2, 3; Rawson, 24
18. ^ Rawson, 24
19. ^ Gombrich, 129; Elsner, 104
20. ^ Gombrich, 131–136; Elkins, s. 2; Rawson, 24–25
21. ^ Kubler in Lang, 163
22. ^ Alpers in Lang, 137
23. ^ Elkins, due south. 2 (quoted); see also Gombrich, 135–136
24. ^ Elkins, s. 2; analysed past Kubler in Lang, 164–165
25. ^ Elsner, 98
26. ^ Murphy, 324
27. ^ Summarized in his article "Evolution of Aboriginal Art: Trends in the Style of Greek Vases and Egyptian Painting", Visual Arts Research, Vol. sixteen, No. 1(31) (Jump 1990), pp. 31–47, University of Illinois Press, JSTOR
28. ^ Suffern, Erika (2013). "Review of The Signature Style of Frans Hals: Painting, Subjectivity, and the Market place in Early Modernity". Renaissance Quarterly. 66 (1): 212–214. doi:10.1086/670435. ISSN 0034-4338.
29. ^ Elsner, 103
30. ^ Alpers in Lang, 139, a situation she sees equally problematic
31. ^ Exemplified in grumbling past Grosvenor; Crane, 214–216
32. ^ Elsner, 103; Dictionary of Fine art Historians: "Giovanni Morelli"
33. ^ Gotlieb, throughout; 469–475 on Vasari and van Eyck; 469 on Seurat.
34. ^ Rawson, 92–102; 111–119
35. ^ Rawson, 27
36. ^ https://museumsandcollections.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/2942274/13_Ritchie_Gainsboroughs-signature-22.pdf^{[ bare URL PDF ]}
37. ^ "Pop art | Characteristics, Definition, Style, Motion, Types, Artists, Paintings, Prints, Examples, Lichtenstein, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 2021-10-13 .
38. ^ "What Is Verse?", "Petronius Arbiter", The Fine art World, Vol. three, No. 6 (Mar., 1918), pp. 506–511, JSTOR
39. ^ Christie's "Explanation of Cataloguing Exercise" (after lot listings). "Style" is not used for paintings etc., but for European porcelain they give the instance:"A plate in the Worcester way" means "In our stance, a copy or simulated of pieces fabricated in the named manufactory, place or region". For examples, this painting, sold by Bonhams in 2011 as "Manner of Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn", is now attributed in their notes to "an anonymous eighteenth-century follower of Rembrandt". This instance sold by Christie's fetched only £750 in 2010.
40. ^ Kubler, George (1962). The Shape of Time : Remarks on the History of Things. New Haven and London: Yale Academy Printing.Kubler, p. 14: "human products ever incorporate both utility and art in varying mixtures, and no object is conceivable without the admixture of both"; see also Alpers in Lang, 140
41. ^ Bahn & Vertut, 89
42. ^ Thermoluminescence dating can be used for much ceramic material, and the developing method of Rehydroxylation dating may go widely used.
43. ^ Review by Mary Ann Levine of The Uses of Style in Archaeology, edited by Margaret Conkey and Christine Hastorf (come across farther reading), pp. 779–780, American Antiquity, Vol. 58, No. iv (Oct., 1993), Society for American Archaeology, JSTOR
44. ^ "Stylization" in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1979, online at The Gratis Dictionary
45. ^ Clark, Willene B., A Medieval Book of Beasts: The Second-Family unit Bestiary, Commentary, Art, Text And Translation, p. 54, 2006, Boydell Printing, ISBN 0851156827, 9780851156828, google books
46. ^ See Elsner, 107 on Picasso as the image of "the supremely self-conscious poseur in any fashion you similar".
47. ^ Holloway, John, The Slumber of Apollo: Reflections on Recent Art, Literature, Language and the Individual Consciousness, p. 30, 1983, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521248043, 9780521248044, google books
48. ^ ^{a b} Suzanne Tracy (ed.), "Computers Friction match Humans in Understanding Fine art", Scientific Calculating , retrieved November 2, 2012 This is a summary of an article appearing in the ACM Periodical on Calculating and Cultural Heritage; the original article was not available at the time of this citation's insertion; citation for original publication follows: Shamir, Lior, and Jane A. Tarakhovsky. "Computer assay of fine art." Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage (JOCCH) 5.ii (2012): 7.
49. ^ See also Gombrich, 140, commenting in 1968 that no such analysis was feasible at that time.

References [edit]

• "Alpers in Lang": Alpers, Svetlana, "Style is What You Make Information technology", in The Concept of Style, ed. Berel Lang, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), 137–162, google books.
• Bahn, Paul M. and Vertut, Jean, Journey Through the Water ice Historic period, University of California Press, 1997, ISBN 0520213068, 9780520213067, google books
• Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450–1600, 1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN 0198810504
• Crane, Susan A. ed, Museums and Retentiveness, Cultural Sitings, 2000, Stanford University Press, ISBN 0804735646, 9780804735643, google books
• Elkins, James, "Style" in Grove Art Online, Oxford Art Online, Oxford University Press, accessed March six, 2013, subscriber link
• Elsner, Jas, "Style" in Critical Terms for Art History, Nelson, Robert S. and Shiff, Richard, 2nd Edn. 2010, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226571696, 9780226571690, google books
• Gombrich, East. "Style" (1968), orig. International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, ed. D. 50. Sills, xv (New York, 1968), reprinted in Preziosi, D. (ed.) The Fine art of Fine art History: A Critical Anthology (run across beneath), whose page numbers are used.
• Gotlieb, Marc, "The Painter's Underground: Invention and Rivalry from Vasari to Balzac", The Art Message, Vol. 84, No. 3 (Sep., 2002), pp. 469–490, JSTOR
• Grosvenor, Bendor, "On connoisseurship", article in Fine Fine art Connoisseur, 2011?, now on "art History News" website
• Honour, Hugh & John Fleming. A World History of Art. 7th edition. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2009, ISBN 9781856695848
• "Kubler in Lang": Kubler, George, Towards a Reductive Theory of Style, in Lang
• Lang, Berel (ed.), The Concept of Style, 1987, Ithaca: Cornell Academy Press, ISBN 0801494397, 9780801494390, google books; includes essays by Alpers and Kubler
• Irish potato, Caroline P., Review of: After Raphael: Painting in Central Italy in the Sixteenth Century by Marcia B. Hall, The Catholic Historical Review, Vol. 86, No. 2 (April., 2000), pp. 323–324, Catholic University of America Press, JSTOR
• Nagel, Alexander, and Wood, Christopher S., Anachronic Renaissance, 2020, Zone Books, MIT Press, ISBN 9781942130345, google books
• Preziosi, D. (ed.) The Fine art of Art History: A Critical Anthology, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 9780714829913
• Rawson, Jessica, Chinese Ornamentation: The lotus and the dragon, 1984, British Museum Publications, ISBN 0714114316

Farther reading [edit]

• Conkey, Margaret Due west., Hastorf, Christine Anne (eds.), The Uses of Manner in Archæology, 1990, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Review by Clemency Chase Coggins in Journal of Field Archeology,1992), from JSTOR
• Davis, W. Replications: Archaeology, Art History, Psychoanalysis. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Land Academy Press, 1996. (Chapter on "Style and History in Fine art History", pp. 171–198.) ISBN 0-271-01524-1
• Panofsky, Erwin. Three Essays on Style. Cambridge, Mass. The MIT Press, 1995. ISBN 0-262-16151-six
• Schapiro, Meyer, "Style", in Theory and Philosophy of Art: Style, Artist, and Gild, New York: Georg Braziller, 1995), 51–102
• Sher, Yakov A.; "On the Sources of the Scythic Animal Way", Arctic Anthropology, Vol. 25, No. two (1988), pp. 47–60; Academy of Wisconsin Press, JSTOR; pp. 50–51 discuss the difficulty of capturing mode in words.
• Siefkes, Martin, Arielli, Emanuele, The Aesthetics and Multimodality of Style, 2018, New York, Peter Lang, ISBN 9783631739426
• Watson, William, Style in the Arts of Cathay, 1974, Penguin, ISBN 0140218637
• Wölfflin, Heinrich, Principles of Art History. The Problem of the Development of Fashion in Afterwards Fine art, Translated from 7th German Edition (1929) into English by Thou D Hottinger, Dover Publications New York, 1950 and many reprints
• See also the lists at Elsner, 108–109 and Elkins

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)

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